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Elijah Muhammad

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</style><table class="infobox vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%;"><div class="fn" style="font-size:125%;">Elijah Muhammad</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><div class="infobox-caption" style="line-height:normal;padding-top:0.2em;">Elijah Muhammad in 1964</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;">Second leader of the <a href="Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">In office 1933–1975</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Preceded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Wallace_Fard_Muhammad" title="Wallace Fard Muhammad">Wallace Fard Muhammad</a><a href="#cite_note-Corbman_2020-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Succeeded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Warith_Deen_Mohammed" title="Warith Deen Mohammed">Warith Deen Mohammed</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2">

</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender">Personal details</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="display:inline" class="nickname">Elijah Robert Poole</div> (1897-10-07)October 7, 1897 <a href="Sandersville%2C_Georgia" title="Sandersville, Georgia">Sandersville, Georgia</a>, U.S.</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">February 25, 1975(1975-02-25) (aged 77) <a href="Chicago" title="Chicago">Chicago</a>, <a href="Illinois" title="Illinois">Illinois</a>, U.S.</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Spouse</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1298804929">

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<div class="marriage-display-inline"><div style="display:inline-block;line-height:normal;margin-top:1px;white-space:normal;"><a href="Clara_Muhammad" title="Clara Muhammad">Clara Muhammad</a></div>

<div class="marriage-line-margin2px"></div> <div style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:1px;"></div>(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> 1917; died 1972)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Children</th><td class="infobox-data">at least 23 (8 with his wife, 15 with other women), including <a href="Jabir_Herbert_Muhammad" title="Jabir Herbert Muhammad">Jabir</a>, <a href="Warith_Deen_Mohammed" title="Warith Deen Mohammed">Warith</a>, and <a href="Akbar_Muhammad" title="Akbar Muhammad">Akbar</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Occupation</th><td class="infobox-data">Leader of the <a href="Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below" style="border-top: 1px solid right;"><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table>

Elijah Muhammad (born Elijah Robert Poole; October 7, 1897 – February 25, 1975) was an American religious leader, <a href="Black_separatism" title="Black separatism">black separatist</a>, and self-proclaimed Messenger of <a href="Allah" title="Allah">Allah</a> who was the second leader of the <a href="Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a> (NOI) from 1933 until his death in 1975.<a href="#cite_note-Corbman_2020-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-NovaReligio_2016-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Berg_2011-3">[3]</a> Muhammad was also the teacher and mentor of <a href="Malcolm_X" title="Malcolm X">Malcolm X</a>, <a href="Louis_Farrakhan" title="Louis Farrakhan">Louis Farrakhan</a>, <a href="Muhammad_Ali" title="Muhammad Ali">Muhammad Ali</a>, and his son, <a href="Warith_Deen_Mohammed" title="Warith Deen Mohammed">Warith Deen Mohammed</a>.

In the 1930s, Muhammad formally established the Nation of Islam, a religious movement that originated under the leadership and teachings of <a href="Wallace_Fard_Muhammad" title="Wallace Fard Muhammad">Wallace Fard Muhammad</a> and that promoted <a href="Black_power" title="Black power">black power</a>, <a href="Black_pride" title="Black pride">pride</a>, economic <a href="Empowerment" title="Empowerment">empowerment</a>, and racial separation. Muhammad taught that Master Fard Muhammad is the 'Son of Man' of the Bible, and after Fard's disappearance in 1934, Muhammad assumed control over Fard's former ministry, formally changing its name to the "Nation of Islam".

Under Muhammad's leadership, the Nation of Islam grew from a small, local black congregation into an influential nationwide movement. He was unique in his combination of <a href="Black_nationalism" title="Black nationalism">black nationalism</a> with traditional <a href="Islam" title="Islam">Islamic</a> themes. Muhammad promoted black self-sufficiency and self-reliance over integration, and he encouraged <a href="African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a> to create a separate state of their own. Muhammad also rejected the <a href="Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">civil rights movement</a> for its emphasis on integration, instead promoting a separate black community.

Muhammad's views on race and his call for black people having an independent nation for themselves made him a controversial figure, both within and outside the Nation of Islam. He has been variously described as a black nationalist and a <a href="Black_supremacy" title="Black supremacy">black supremacist</a>. He is also known to have been a serial <a href="Child_sexual_abuse" title="Child sexual abuse">child rapist</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-Perry1991-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-LostTapes-6">[6]</a>

Muhammad died on February 25, 1975, after a period of declining health. He was succeeded as head of the Nation of Islam by his son, <a href="Warith_Deen_Mohammed" title="Warith Deen Mohammed">Wallace Muhammad</a>.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_years_and_life_before_Nation_of_Islam">Early years and life before Nation of Islam</h2></div>

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</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="font-size:180%;"><a href="Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Influencers</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Satokata_Takahashi" title="Satokata Takahashi">Satokata Takahashi</a></li>

<li><a href="Noble_Drew_Ali" title="Noble Drew Ali">Noble Drew Ali</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

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<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Leaders</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Wallace_Fard_Muhammad" title="Wallace Fard Muhammad">Wallace Fard Muhammad</a></li>

<li><a href="Malcolm_X" title="Malcolm X">Malcolm X</a></li>

<li><a href="Warith_Deen_Mohammed" title="Warith Deen Mohammed">Warith Deen Mohammed</a></li>

<li><a href="Louis_Farrakhan" title="Louis Farrakhan">Louis Farrakhan</a></li>

<li><a href="Tynnetta_Muhammad" title="Tynnetta Muhammad">Tynnetta Muhammad</a></li>

<li><a href="Ishmael_Muhammad" title="Ishmael Muhammad">Ishmael Muhammad</a></li>

<li><a href="Ava_Muhammad" title="Ava Muhammad">Ava Muhammad</a></li>

<li><a href="David_Muhammad" title="David Muhammad">David Muhammad</a></li>

<li><a href="James_Russell_McGregor" title="James Russell McGregor">James 3X</a></li>

<li><a href="Khalid_Muhammad" class="mw-redirect" title="Khalid Muhammad">Khalid Muhammad</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="Beliefs_and_theology_of_the_Nation_of_Islam" title="Beliefs and theology of the Nation of Islam">Beliefs and theology</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Saviours'_Day" title="Saviours' Day">Saviours' Day</a></li>

<li><a href="Nation_of_Islam_and_antisemitism" title="Nation of Islam and antisemitism">Nation of Islam and antisemitism</a></li>

<li><a href="Tribe_of_Shabazz" title="Tribe of Shabazz">Tribe of Shabazz</a></li>

<li><a href="Yakub_(Nation_of_Islam)" title="Yakub (Nation of Islam)">Yakub</a></li>

<li><a href="Dianetics" title="Dianetics">Dianetics</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

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<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">History</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Million_Man_March" title="Million Man March">Million Man March</a></li>

<li><a href="Millions_More_Movement" title="Millions More Movement">Millions More Movement</a></li>

<li><a href="Justice_or_Else" class="mw-redirect" title="Justice or Else">Justice or Else</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

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<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Publications</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="A_Torchlight_for_America" title="A Torchlight for America">A Torchlight for America</a></li>

<li><a href="The_Final_Call_(newspaper)" title="The Final Call (newspaper)">The Final Call</a></li>

<li><a href="Muhammad_Speaks" title="Muhammad Speaks">Muhammad Speaks</a></li>

<li><a href="Message_to_the_Blackman_in_America" title="Message to the Blackman in America">Message to the Blackman in America</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

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<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Subsidiaries</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Fruit_of_Islam" title="Fruit of Islam">Fruit of Islam</a></li>

<li><a href="Muhammad_Farms" title="Muhammad Farms">Muhammad Farms</a></li>

<li><a href="Muhammad_University_of_Islam" title="Muhammad University of Islam">Muhammad University of Islam</a></li>

<li><a href="Muslim_Girls_Training" title="Muslim Girls Training">Muslim Girls Training</a></li>

<li><a href="Star_Chamber_Academy" title="Star Chamber Academy">Star Chamber Academy</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Offshoots and sects</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="American_Society_of_Muslims" title="American Society of Muslims">American Society of Muslims</a></li>

<li><a href="Five-Percent_Nation" title="Five-Percent Nation">Five-Percent Nation</a></li>

<li><a href="United_Nation_of_Islam" title="United Nation of Islam">United Nation of Islam</a></li>

<li><a href="Nation_of_Yahweh" title="Nation of Yahweh">Nation of Yahweh</a></li>

<li><a href="Nuwaubian_Nation" title="Nuwaubian Nation">Nuwaubian Nation</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Related organizations</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Black_Dragon_Society" title="Black Dragon Society">Black Dragon Society</a></li>

<li><a href="Black_Mafia" title="Black Mafia">Black Mafia</a></li>

<li><a href="New_Black_Panther_Party" title="New Black Panther Party">New Black Panther Party</a></li>

<li><a href="Peace_Movement_of_Ethiopia" title="Peace Movement of Ethiopia">Peace Movement of Ethiopia</a></li>

<li><a href="Church_of_Scientology" title="Church of Scientology">Church of Scientology</a></li>

<li><a href="Yusuf_Bey" title="Yusuf Bey">Yusuf Bey</a></li>

<li><a href="Your_Black_Muslim_Bakery" title="Your Black Muslim Bakery">Your Black Muslim Bakery</a></li>

<li><a href="Black_Hebrew_Israelites" title="Black Hebrew Israelites">Black Hebrew Israelites</a></li>

<li><a href="Moorish_Science_Temple_of_America" title="Moorish Science Temple of America">Moorish Science Temple of America</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below">

<a href="Portal%3AIslam" title="Portal:Islam">Islam portal</a>  <a href="Portal%3APolitics" title="Portal:Politics">Politics portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">

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Elijah Muhammad was born Elijah Robert Poole in <a href="Sandersville%2C_Georgia" title="Sandersville, Georgia">Sandersville, Georgia</a> on October 7 1897, the seventh of thirteen children of William Poole Sr. (1868–1942), a <a href="Baptist" class="mw-redirect" title="Baptist">Baptist</a> <a href="Laity" title="Laity">lay preacher</a> and <a href="Sharecropper" class="mw-redirect" title="Sharecropper">sharecropper</a>, and Mariah Hall (1873–1958), a homemaker and sharecropper.

Elijah's education ended at the fourth grade, after which he went to work in sawmills and brickyards.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> To support the family, he worked with his parents as a <a href="Sharecropper" class="mw-redirect" title="Sharecropper">sharecropper</a>. When he was 16 years old, he left home and began working in factories and at other businesses.

Elijah married <a href="Clara_Muhammad" title="Clara Muhammad">Clara Evans</a> (1899–1972) on March 7, 1917. In 1923, the Poole family was among hundreds of thousands of black families forming the <a href="Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">First Great Migration</a> leaving the oppressive and economically troubled <a href="Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">South</a> in search of safety and employment.<a href="#cite_note-anb.org-8">[8]</a> Elijah later recounted that before the age of 20, he had witnessed the <a href="Lynching" title="Lynching">lynchings</a> of three black men by white people. He said, "I seen enough of the white man's brutality to last me 26,000 years".<a href="#cite_note-An_Original_Man-9">[9]</a>

Moving his own family, parents, and siblings, Elijah and the Pooles settled in the industrial north of <a href="Hamtramck%2C_Michigan" title="Hamtramck, Michigan">Hamtramck, Michigan</a>. Through the 1920s and 1930s, he struggled to find and keep work as the economy suffered during the post <a href="World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> and <a href="Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a> eras. During their years in <a href="Detroit" title="Detroit">Detroit</a>, Elijah and Clara had eight children, six boys and two girls.<a href="#cite_note-AmericanVisions-10">[10]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Conversion_and_rise_to_leadership">Conversion and rise to leadership</h2></div>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a></div>

While he was in Detroit, Poole began taking part in various <a href="Black_nationalism" title="Black nationalism">black nationalist</a> movements within the city. In August 1931, at the urging of his wife, Elijah Poole attended a speech on <a href="Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> and black empowerment by <a href="Wallace_Fard_Muhammad" title="Wallace Fard Muhammad">Wallace Fard Muhammad</a> (Wallace D. Fard). Afterward, Poole said he approached Fard and asked if he was the <a href="Mahdi" title="Mahdi">"Mahdi" (redeemer)</a>, Fard responded that he was, but that his time had not yet come.<a href="#cite_note-An_Original_Man-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-AmericanVisions-10">[10]</a> Fard taught that black people, as original Asiatics, had a rich cultural history which was stolen from them in their enslavement. Fard stated that African Americans could regain their freedom through self-independence and cultivation of their own culture and civilization.<a href="#cite_note-noi-history-11">[11]</a>

Poole, having strong consciousness of both race and class issues as a result of his struggles in the South, quickly fell in step with Fard's ideology. Poole soon became an ardent follower of Fard and joined his movement, as did his wife and several brothers. Soon afterward, Poole was given a Muslim surname, first "Karriem", and later, at Fard's behest, "Muhammad". He assumed leadership of the Nation's Temple No. 2 in <a href="Chicago%2C_Illinois" class="mw-redirect" title="Chicago, Illinois">Chicago</a>.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> His younger brother Kalot Muhammad became the leader of the movement's self-defense arm, the <a href="Fruit_of_Islam" title="Fruit of Islam">Fruit of Islam</a>.

Fard turned over leadership of the growing Detroit group to Elijah Muhammad, and the Allah Temple of Islam changed its name to the Nation of Islam.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> Muhammad and Wallace Fard continued to communicate until 1934, when Wallace Fard disappeared. Muhammad succeeded him in Detroit and was named "Minister of Islam". After the disappearance, Muhammad told followers that Allah had come as Wallace Fard, in the flesh, to share his teachings that are a salvation for his followers.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a>

In 1934, the Nation of Islam published its first newspaper, Final Call to Islam, to educate and build membership. Children of its members attended classes at the newly created <a href="Muhammad_University_of_Islam" title="Muhammad University of Islam">Muhammad University of Islam</a>, but this soon led to challenges by <a href="Board_of_education" title="Board of education">boards of education</a> in Detroit and <a href="Chicago_Board_of_Education" title="Chicago Board of Education">Chicago</a>, which considered the children <a href="Truancy" title="Truancy">truants</a> from the public school system. The controversy led to the jailing of several University of Islam board members and Muhammad in 1934 and to violent confrontations with police. Elijah was put on <a href="Probation" title="Probation">probation</a>, but the university remained open.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Leadership_of_the_Nation_of_Islam">Leadership of the Nation of Islam</h2></div>

Elijah Muhammad took control of Temple No. 1, but only after battles with other potential leaders, including his brother. In 1935, as these battles became increasingly fierce, Elijah left Detroit and settled his family in Chicago. Still facing death threats, Elijah left his family there and traveled to <a href="Milwaukee%2C_Wisconsin" class="mw-redirect" title="Milwaukee, Wisconsin">Milwaukee</a>, <a href="Wisconsin" title="Wisconsin">Wisconsin</a>, where he founded Temple No. 3, and eventually to <a href="Washington%2C_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a>, where he founded Temple No. 4. He spent much of his time reading 104 books suggested by Wallace Fard at the <a href="Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a>.<a href="#cite_note-An_Original_Man-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-HistoricalLook-18">[18]</a>

On May 8, 1942, Muhammad was arrested for failure to register for <a href="Selective_Training_and_Service_Act_of_1940" title="Selective Training and Service Act of 1940">the draft</a> during <a href="World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>. After he was released on bail, Muhammad fled Washington, D.C., on the advice of his attorney, who feared a <a href="Lynching" title="Lynching">lynching</a>, and returned to Chicago after a seven-year absence. Muhammad was arrested there, charged with eight counts of <a href="Sedition" title="Sedition">sedition</a> for instructing his followers to not register for the draft or serve in the <a href="United_States_armed_forces" class="mw-redirect" title="United States armed forces">armed forces</a>. Acquitted of sedition, but found guilty of draft evasion, Muhammad served four years in prison, from 1942 to 1946, at the <a href="Federal_Correctional_Institution%2C_Milan" title="Federal Correctional Institution, Milan">Federal Correctional Institution</a> in <a href="Milan%2C_Michigan" title="Milan, Michigan">Milan</a>, Michigan. During that time, his wife, <a href="Clara_Muhammad" title="Clara Muhammad">Clara</a>, and trusted aides ran the organization; Muhammad transmitted his messages and directives to followers in letters.<a href="#cite_note-An_Original_Man-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-HistoricalLook-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-EssienUdom-19">[19]</a>

Following his return to Chicago, Elijah Muhammad was firmly in charge of the Nation of Islam. While Muhammad was in prison, the growth of the Nation of Islam had stagnated, with fewer than 400 members remaining by the time of his release in 1946. However, through the conversion of his fellow inmates as well as renewed efforts outside prison, he was able to redouble his efforts and continue growing the Nation.<a href="#cite_note-Bowman,_Jeffrey_2006-20">[20]</a>

Muhammad preached his own version of Islam to his followers in the Nation. According to him, blacks were known as the "original" human beings, with "evil" whites being an offshoot race that would go on to oppress black people for 6,000 years. The origins of the white race would come to be known as <a href="Yakub_(Nation_of_Islam)" title="Yakub (Nation of Islam)">Yacub</a>'s History within Muhammad's teachings. In <a href="The_Autobiography_of_Malcolm_X" title="The Autobiography of Malcolm X">The Autobiography of Malcolm X</a>, Malcolm X talks about when he first encounters this doctrine, though he would later come to regret that he ever believed in it.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a>

He preached that the Nation of Islam's goal was to return the stolen hegemony of the inferior whites back to blacks across America.<a href="#cite_note-anb.org-8">[8]</a> Much of Muhammad's teachings appealed to young, economically disadvantaged, African-American males from Christian backgrounds. Traditionally, black males would not go to church because the church did not address their needs. Muhammad's program for economic development played a large part in the growth in the Nation of Islam. He purchased land and businesses to provide housing and employment for young black males.

By the 1970s, the Nation of Islam owned bakeries, barber shops, coffee shops, grocery stores, laundromats, night-clubs, a printing plant, retail stores, numerous real estate holdings, and a fleet of <a href="Semi-trailer_truck" title="Semi-trailer truck">tractor trailers</a>, plus farmland in Michigan, Alabama, and Georgia. In 1972 the Nation of Islam took controlling interest in a bank, the Guaranty Bank and Trust Co. Nation of Islam-owned schools expanded until, by 1974, the group had established schools in 47 cities throughout the United States.<a href="#cite_note-In_the_Name_of_Elijah_Muhammad-22">[22]</a> In 1972, Muhammad told followers that the Nation of Islam had a net worth of $75 million.<a href="#cite_note-Evanzz-23">[23]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dietary_advice">Dietary advice</h2></div>

Muhammad authored a two volume <a href="How_to_Eat_to_Live" title="How to Eat to Live">How to Eat to Live</a> which promoted <a href="Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">pseudoscientific</a> views about diet and nutrition.<a href="#cite_note-Tucker_2018-24">[24]</a> Muhammad argued that only one meal should be eaten a day at the most and if black people eat only one meal every three days they will never get sick and may possibly live for 1000 years.<a href="#cite_note-Tucker_2018-24">[24]</a> He argued that eating <a href="Pork" title="Pork">pork</a> will bring about depraved behaviour and culture of White westerners.<a href="#cite_note-Tucker_2018-24">[24]</a> According to Muhammad, <a href="Beef" title="Beef">beef</a>, lamb, and camel were permissible but should be avoided if possible.<a href="#cite_note-Berg_2009-25">[25]</a> He stated that "Allah forbids us to eat the flesh of swine or of fish weighing 50 pounds or more".<a href="#cite_note-Berg_2009-25">[25]</a>

In regard to <a href="Fowl" title="Fowl">fowl</a>, only baby pigeons were seen as clean and if eaten should be taken straight from the nest.<a href="#cite_note-Tucker_2018-24">[24]</a> According to Muhammad, peas and sweet potatoes are forbidden by Allah and many foods white in colour are automatically bad for health.<a href="#cite_note-Tucker_2018-24">[24]</a> Muhammad argued that white people were attempting to destroy black people by weakening their health with inappropriate <a href="Processed_food" class="mw-redirect" title="Processed food">processed foods</a> such as biscuits and <a href="White_bread" title="White bread">white bread</a>. Muhammad considered most fruits and vegetables safe to eat "except collard greens and turnip salad". In regard to beans, only <a href="Navy_bean" title="Navy bean">navy beans</a> could be eaten. Lima beans were considered a poison which Muhammad believed made black men's stomachs explode.<a href="#cite_note-Tucker_2018-24">[24]</a> Rice and spinach were allowed in moderation. There were no restrictions on garlic, onions or <a href="Whole_grain" title="Whole grain">whole wheat</a> bread.<a href="#cite_note-Berg_2009-25">[25]</a>

Muhammad stated that he obtained his dietary advice from "God in Person Master Fard Muhammad".<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Written_works">Written works</h2></div>

<ul><li>Muslim Daily Prayers (1957)</li>

<li>The Supreme Wisdom, Vol. I & II (1957)</li>

<li><a href="Message_to_the_Blackman_in_America" title="Message to the Blackman in America">Message to the Blackman in America</a> (1965)</li>

<li>The Fall of America (1973)</li>

<li>Our Saviour Has Arrived (1974)</li>

<li>The Flag of Islam (1974)</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Death">Death</h2></div>

On January 30, 1975, Muhammad entered <a href="Mercy_Hospital_and_Medical_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="Mercy Hospital and Medical Center">Mercy Hospital</a>, known as Insight Chicago in <a href="Chicago" title="Chicago">Chicago</a>, <a href="Illinois" title="Illinois">Illinois</a>, suffering from a combination of <a href="Heart_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Heart disease">heart disease</a>, <a href="Diabetes" title="Diabetes">diabetes</a>, <a href="Bronchitis" title="Bronchitis">bronchitis</a>, and <a href="Asthma" title="Asthma">asthma</a>. There, he died of <a href="Congestive_heart_failure" class="mw-redirect" title="Congestive heart failure">congestive heart failure</a> nearly one month later at the age of 77 on February 25, the day before <a href="Saviours'_Day" title="Saviours' Day">Saviours' Day</a>. He was survived by many children, including his two daughters and six sons by his wife, most notably, he was survived by the future Muslim leader <a href="Warith_Deen_Muhammad" class="mw-redirect" title="Warith Deen Muhammad">Warith Deen Muhammad</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-27">[27]</a>

He was buried alongside Clara at Mount Glenwood Memory Gardens South in <a href="Glenwood%2C_Illinois" title="Glenwood, Illinois">Glenwood, Illinois</a>.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2></div>

During his time as leader of the Nation of Islam, Muhammad had developed the Nation of Islam from a small movement in Detroit to an empire consisting of banks, schools, restaurants, and stores across 46 cities in America. The Nation also owned over 15,000 acres of farmland, their own truck- and air- transport systems, as well as a publishing company that printed the country's largest black newspaper.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-27">[27]</a>

As a leader, Muhammad served as a mentor to many notable members, including <a href="Malcolm_X" title="Malcolm X">Malcolm X</a>, <a href="Muhammad_Ali" title="Muhammad Ali">Muhammad Ali</a>, <a href="Louis_Farrakhan" title="Louis Farrakhan">Louis Farrakhan</a> and his son <a href="Warith_Deen_Mohammed" title="Warith Deen Mohammed">Warith Deen Mohammed</a>. The Nation of Islam is estimated to have between 20,000 and 50,000 members,<a href="#cite_note-MacF2007-28">[28]</a> and 130 mosques offering numerous social programs.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a>

Upon his death, his son Warith Deen Mohammed succeeded him. Warith disbanded the Nation of Islam in 1976 and founded an <a href="Orthodoxy" title="Orthodoxy">orthodox</a> mainstream Islamic organization, that came to be known as the <a href="American_Society_of_Muslims" title="American Society of Muslims">American Society of Muslims</a>. The organization would dissolve, change names and reorganize many times.

In 1977, Louis Farrakhan resigned from Warith Deen's reformed organization and reinstituted the original Nation of Islam upon the foundation established by Wallace Fard Muhammad and Elijah Muhammad. Farrakhan regained many of the Nation of Islam's original properties including the National Headquarters Mosque #2 (<a href="Mosque_Maryam" title="Mosque Maryam">Mosque Maryam</a>) and <a href="Muhammad_University_of_Islam" title="Muhammad University of Islam">Muhammad University of Islam</a> in Chicago.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Controversies">Controversies</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rift_with_Ernest_2X_McGee">Rift with Ernest 2X McGee</h3></div>

<a href="Hamaas_Abdul_Khaalis" title="Hamaas Abdul Khaalis">Ernest 2X McGee</a> was the first national secretary of the NOI and had been ousted in the late 1950s.<a href="#cite_note-Evanzz2001-30">[30]</a> McGee went on to form a Sunni Muslim sect and changed his name to <a href="Hamaas_Abdul_Khaalis" title="Hamaas Abdul Khaalis">Hamaas Abdul Khaalis</a>. Khaalis attracted <a href="Lew_Alcindor" class="mw-redirect" title="Lew Alcindor">Lew Alcindor</a>, whom Khaalis renamed <a href="Kareem_Abdul-Jabbar" title="Kareem Abdul-Jabbar">Kareem Abdul-Jabbar</a>. Jabbar donated <a href="7700_16th_Street" class="mw-redirect" title="7700 16th Street">a house</a> for use as the Hanafi Madh-Hab Center. Khaalis sent letters that were critical of Muhammad and Fard to Muhammad, his ministers, and the media.<a href="#cite_note-Evanzz2001-30">[30]</a>

The letters stated blacks had been better off "from a psychological point of view" before Fard

came along because it weaned them from Christianity to a fabricated form of Islam. Both, in his opinion, were bad.<a href="#cite_note-Evanzz2001-30">[30]</a> His letters also revealed what he knew of Fard, alleging he was John Walker of <a href="Gary%2C_Indiana" title="Gary, Indiana">Gary</a> who had come to America at 27 from Greece, had served prison time for stealing, and raping a 17-year-old girl, and had died in <a href="Chicago%2C_Illinois" class="mw-redirect" title="Chicago, Illinois">Chicago, Illinois</a>, at 78.<a href="#cite_note-Evanzz2001-30">[30]</a>

After the letters were sent, <a href="1973_Hanafi_Muslim_massacre" title="1973 Hanafi Muslim massacre">seven of Khaalis' family members were murdered</a> at the Hanafi Madh-Hab Center. Four men from NOI <a href="Mosque_No._12" title="Mosque No. 12">Mosque No. 12</a> were accused of the crime.<a href="#cite_note-Smothers1974-31">[31]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rift_with_Malcolm_X">Rift with Malcolm X</h3></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Malcolm_X's_public_response_to_the_assassination_of_President_Kennedy">Malcolm X's public response to the assassination of President Kennedy</h4></div>

On December 1, 1963, when asked for a comment about the <a href="John_F._Kennedy_assassination" class="mw-redirect" title="John F. Kennedy assassination">assassination of President John F. Kennedy</a>, <a href="Malcolm_X" title="Malcolm X">Malcolm X</a> said that it was a case of "<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/come_home_to_roost" class="extiw external" title="wikt:come home to roost">chickens coming home to roost</a>". He added that "chickens coming home to roost never did make me sad; they've always made me glad."<a href="#cite_note-Times63-12-02-32">[32]</a> <a href="The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a> wrote, "in further criticism of Mr. Kennedy, the Muslim leader cited the murders of <a href="Patrice_Lumumba" title="Patrice Lumumba">Patrice Lumumba</a>, Congo leader, of <a href="Medgar_Evers" title="Medgar Evers">Medgar Evers</a>, civil rights leader, and of the <a href="16th_Street_Baptist_Church_bombing" title="16th Street Baptist Church bombing">Negro girls bombed</a> earlier this year in a <a href="Birmingham%2C_Alabama" title="Birmingham, Alabama">Birmingham, Alabama</a>, church. These, he said, were instances of other 'chickens coming home to roost'."<a href="#cite_note-Times63-12-02-32">[32]</a> The remarks prompted a widespread public outcry. The Nation of Islam, which had sent a message of condolence to the Kennedy family and ordered its ministers not to comment on the assassination, publicly censured their former shining star.<a href="#cite_note-Natambu2002-33">[33]</a> Malcolm X retained his post and rank as minister, but was prohibited from public speaking for 90 days.<a href="#cite_note-Perry242-34">[34]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Rape_of_underage_girls">Rape of underage girls</h4></div>

Rumors were circulating that Elijah was conducting extramarital affairs with young Nation secretaries‍—‌which would constitute a serious violation of Nation teachings. After first discounting the rumors, Malcolm X came to believe them after he spoke with Muhammad's son <a href="Warith_Deen_Mohammed" title="Warith Deen Mohammed">Wallace</a> and with the girls making the accusations. Muhammad confirmed the rumors in 1963, attempting to justify his behavior by referring to precedents set by Biblical prophets.<a href="#cite_note-:0-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-Perry1991-5">[5]</a> Over a series of national TV interviews between 1964 and 1965, Malcolm X provided testimony of his investigation, corroboration, and confirmation by Muhammad himself of multiple instances of child rape.

During this investigation, Malcolm X learned that seven of the eight girls had become pregnant by Muhammad, and publicly shared the information.<a href="#cite_note-LostTapes-6">[6]</a> Malcolm X also spoke of an attempt made to assassinate him, by means of an explosive device discovered in his car, and of death threats he was receiving, which he believed were in response to his exposure of Muhammad.<a href="#cite_note-youtube-interview-malcomx-35">[35]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Final_schism_and_murder_of_Malcolm_X">Final schism and murder of Malcolm X</h4></div>

The extramarital affairs, the suspension, and <a href="Malcolm_X#Disillusionment_and_departure" title="Malcolm X">other factors</a> caused a rift between the two men, with Malcolm X leaving the Nation of Islam in March 1964 to form his own religious organization, <a href="Muslim_Mosque_Inc." class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim Mosque Inc.">Muslim Mosque Inc.</a><a href="#cite_note-Perry251-36">[36]</a> After dealing with death threats and attempts on his life for a year,<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> Malcolm X <a href="Assassination_of_Malcolm_X" title="Assassination of Malcolm X"> was assassinated</a> on February 21, 1965.<a href="#cite_note-Manning1965-38">[38]</a> Many people suspected that the Nation of Islam was responsible for the killing of Malcolm X. Five days after Malcolm X was murdered, in a public speech at the Nation of Islam's annual <a href="Saviours'_Day" title="Saviours' Day">Saviours' Day</a> on February 26, Elijah justified the assassination by quoting that "Malcolm got just what he preached", but at the same time denied any involvement with the murder by asserting in the same speech: "We didn't want to kill Malcolm and didn't try to kill him. We know such ignorant, foolish teaching would bring him to his own end."<a href="#cite_note-Evanzz301-39">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-Clegg1997-40">[40]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cooperation_with_white_supremacists">Cooperation with white supremacists</h3></div>

Elijah's pro-separation views were compatible with those of some <a href="White_supremacist" class="mw-redirect" title="White supremacist">white supremacist</a> organizations in the 1960s.<a href="#cite_note-Berg2009-41">[41]</a> He met with leaders of the <a href="Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">Ku Klux Klan</a> (KKK) in 1961 to work toward the purchase of farmland in the <a href="Deep_South" title="Deep South">Deep South</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Manning1997-42">[42]</a> For more than ten years Elijah received major financial support from white supremacist Texas oil baron <a href="H._L._Hunt" title="H. L. Hunt">H. L. Hunt</a> due to Elijah's belief in racial separation from whites. The money helped Elijah to acquire opulent homes for himself and his family and establish overseas bank accounts.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a>

He eventually established Temple Farms, now <a href="Muhammad_Farms" title="Muhammad Farms">Muhammad Farms</a>, on a 5,000-acre (20 km2) tract in <a href="Terrell_County%2C_Georgia" title="Terrell County, Georgia">Terrell County, Georgia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> <a href="George_Lincoln_Rockwell" title="George Lincoln Rockwell">George Lincoln Rockwell</a>, founder of the <a href="American_Nazi_Party" title="American Nazi Party">American Nazi Party</a>, once called Elijah "the <a href="Hitler" class="mw-redirect" title="Hitler">Hitler</a> of the black man."<a href="#cite_note-Time1975-45">[45]</a> At the 1962 <a href="Saviours'_Day" title="Saviours' Day">Saviours' Day</a> celebration in Chicago, Rockwell addressed <a href="Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a> members. Many in the audience booed and heckled him and his men, for which Elijah rebuked them in the April 1962 issue of Muhammad Speaks.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Personal_life">Personal life</h2></div>

Elijah married <a href="Clara_Muhammad" title="Clara Muhammad">Clara Muhammad</a> in Georgia in 1917, and he had eight children with her. He also fathered at least nine children from extra-marital relationships.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> In total, it is estimated that he had 23 children, of whom 21 are documented.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a>

After Elijah's death, nineteen of his children filed lawsuits against the Nation of Islam's successor, the <a href="American_Society_of_Muslims" title="American Society of Muslims">World Community of Islam</a>, seeking status as his heirs. Ultimately, the court ruled against them.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a>

Children via his wife, Clara Muhammad:

Two daughters and six sons including notable:

<ul><li><a href="Jabir_Herbert_Muhammad" title="Jabir Herbert Muhammad">Jabir Herbert Muhammad</a> (1929–2008)</li>

<li><a href="Wallace_Delaney_Muhammad" class="mw-redirect" title="Wallace Delaney Muhammad">Wallace Delaney Muhammad</a>, later known as Warith Deen Mohammed (1933–2008)</li>

<li><a href="Akbar_Muhammad" title="Akbar Muhammad">Akbar Muhammad</a> (1939–2016)</li></ul>

Children via mistresses:

<ul><li>Lucille Rosary Karriem Muhammad: three daughters</li>

<li>June Muhammad: one son including notable: Abdullah Muhammad and one daughter</li>

<li>Evelyn Williams: one daughter</li>

<li>Ola (Hughes) Muhammad: one son</li>

<li><a href="Tynnetta_Muhammad" title="Tynnetta Muhammad">Tynnetta Muhammad</a>: three sons and a daughter, including notable:

<ul><li><a href="Ishmael_Muhammad" title="Ishmael Muhammad">Ishmael Muhammad</a></li></ul></li>

<li>Lovetta Muhammad: one daughter</li>

<li>Bernique Cushmeer: one son</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Honors">Honors</h2></div>

In 2002, scholar <a href="Molefi_Kete_Asante" title="Molefi Kete Asante">Molefi Kete Asante</a> listed Elijah Muhammad on his list of <a href="100_Greatest_African_Americans" title="100 Greatest African Americans">100 Greatest African Americans</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Asante2002-53">[53]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Portrayals_on_screen">Portrayals on screen</h2></div>

Elijah Muhammad was portrayed by <a href="Al_Freeman_Jr." title="Al Freeman Jr.">Al Freeman Jr.</a> in <a href="Spike_Lee" title="Spike Lee">Spike Lee's</a> 1992 <a href="Motion_picture" class="mw-redirect" title="Motion picture">motion picture</a> <a href="Malcolm_X_(1992_film)" title="Malcolm X (1992 film)">Malcolm X</a>. <a href="Albert_Hall_(actor)" title="Albert Hall (actor)">Albert Hall</a>, who played the <a href="Composite_character" title="Composite character">composite character</a> "Baines" in Malcolm X, later played Muhammad in <a href="Michael_Mann_(director)" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael Mann (director)">Michael Mann's</a> 2001 film <a href="Ali_(film)" title="Ali (film)">Ali</a>.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> He was also portrayed by <a href="Clifton_Davis" title="Clifton Davis">Clifton Davis</a> in the series <a href="Godfather_of_Harlem" title="Godfather of Harlem">Godfather of Harlem</a>. He was most recently portrayed by <a href="Ron_Cephas_Jones" title="Ron Cephas Jones">Ron Cephas Jones</a> in the Drama Biography by National Geographic "Genius: MLK/X".

<ul><li><a href="African-American_Muslims" title="African-American Muslims">African-American Muslims</a></li>

<li><a href="Afrocentrism" title="Afrocentrism">Afrocentrism</a></li>

<li><a href="Islam_in_the_United_States" title="Islam in the United States">Islam in the United States</a></li>

<li><a href="The_Hate_That_Hate_Produced" title="The Hate That Hate Produced">The Hate That Hate Produced</a> (1959 documentary)</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div>

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</style><cite id="CITEREFCorbman2020" class="citation journal cs1">Corbman, Marjorie (June 2020). Fletcher, Jeannine H. (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Frel11060305">"The Creation of the Devil and the End of the White Man's Rule: The Theological Influence of the Nation of Islam on Early Black Theology"</a>. <a href="Religions_(journal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Religions (journal)">Religions</a>. 11 (6: Racism and Religious Diversity in the United States). <a href="Basel" title="Basel">Basel</a>: <a href="MDPI" title="MDPI">MDPI</a>: 305. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Frel11060305">10.3390/rel11060305</a>. <a href="EISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="EISSN (identifier)">eISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2077-1444">2077-1444</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-NovaReligio_2016-2"><a href="#cite_ref-NovaReligio_2016_2-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFCurtis_IV2016" class="citation journal cs1">Curtis IV, Edward E. (August 2016). <a href="Catherine_Wessinger" title="Catherine Wessinger">Wessinger, Catherine</a> (ed.). "Science and Technology in Elijah Muhammad's Nation of Islam: Astrophysical Disaster, Genetic Engineering, UFOs, White Apocalypse, and Black Resurrection". <a href="Nova_Religio" title="Nova Religio">Nova Religio: The Journal of Alternative and Emergent Religions</a>. 20 (1). <a href="Berkeley%2C_California" title="Berkeley, California">Berkeley</a>: <a href="University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>: 5–31. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Fnovo.2016.20.1.5">10.1525/novo.2016.20.1.5</a>. <a href="Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1805%2F14819">1805/14819</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1541-8480">1541-8480</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:151927666">151927666</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-Berg_2011-3"><a href="#cite_ref-Berg_2011_3-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFBerg2011" class="citation book cs1">Berg, Herbert (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=J6V6oW6qdfkC&pg=PA329">"Elijah Muhammad's Redeployment of Muḥammad: Racialist and Prophetic Interpretations of the Qurʾān"</a>. In Boekhoff-van der Voort, Nicolet; Versteegh, Kees; Wagemakers, Joas (eds.). The Transmission and Dynamics of the Textual Sources of Islam: Essays in Honour of Harald Motzki. Islamic History and Civilization. Vol. 89. <a href="Leiden" title="Leiden">Leiden</a>: <a href="Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill Publishers</a>. pp. 329–353. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004206786_017">10.1163/9789004206786_017</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-90-04-20678-6</bdi>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0929-2403">0929-2403</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-:0-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_4-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPerry1991">Perry 1991</a>, pp. 230–234.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Perry1991-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Perry1991_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Perry1991_5-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFPerry1991" class="citation book cs1">Perry, Bruce (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/malcolmlifeofman00perr/page/230">Malcolm: The Life of a Man Who Changed Black America</a>. Barrytown, N.Y.: Station Hill. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/malcolmlifeofman00perr/page/230">230–34</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-88268-103-0</bdi>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-LostTapes-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-LostTapes_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-LostTapes_6-1">b</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/videos/malcolm-xs-explosive-comments-about-elijah-mu/">"The Lost Tapes: Malcolm X. Malcolm X's Explosive Comments About Elijah Muhammed"</a>. Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved February 26, 2023.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biography.com/people/elijah-muhammad-9417458#awesm=~oBHIKFiTWK9maw">"Elijah Muhammad"</a>. May 6, 2021.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-anb.org-8">^ <a href="#cite_ref-anb.org_8-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-anb.org_8-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFMamiya2000" class="citation web cs1">Mamiya, Lawrence H. (February 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.anb.org/articles/08/08-2140.html">"Muhammad, Elijah"</a>. American National Biography Online.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-An_Original_Man-9">^ <a href="#cite_ref-An_Original_Man_9-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-An_Original_Man_9-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-An_Original_Man_9-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-An_Original_Man_9-3">d</a> <a href="Claude_Andrew_Clegg_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Claude Andrew Clegg III">Claude Andrew Clegg III</a>, An Original Man: The Life and Times of Elijah Muhammad, St. Martin's Griffin, 1998.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-AmericanVisions-10">^ <a href="#cite_ref-AmericanVisions_10-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-AmericanVisions_10-1">b</a> Richard Brent Turner, "From Elijah Poole to Elijah Muhammad", American Visions, October–November 1997.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-noi-history-11"><a href="#cite_ref-noi-history_11-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFMuhammad1996" class="citation web cs1">Muhammad, Tynetta (March 28, 1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.noi.org/noi-history/">"Nation of Islam in America: A Nation of Beauty & Peace"</a>. Nation of Islam. Retrieved March 13, 2015.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> The Messenger: The Rise and Fall of Elijah Muhammad (2001). This source claims the first encounter between Poole and Fard took place at the Poole's dinner table.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> The Messenger (2001) suggests the name was changed to convince the authorities that Allah's Temple of Islam had disbanded.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> An Original Man: One NOI tenet states: "There is no God but Allah, Master W. D. Fard, Elijah, his prophet"

</li>

<li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> Charles Eric Lincoln, The Black Muslims in America, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1994.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> Chronology of the Nation of Islam, Toure Muhammad.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> Richard Brent Turner, Islam in the African-American Experience, University of Indiana Press 1997

</li>

<li id="cite_note-HistoricalLook-18">^ <a href="#cite_ref-HistoricalLook_18-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-HistoricalLook_18-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.noi.org/elijah_muhammad_history.htm">"A Historical Look at the Honorable Elijah Muhammad"</a>, Nation of Islam web site.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-EssienUdom-19"><a href="#cite_ref-EssienUdom_19-0">^</a> <a href="E._U._Essien-Udom" title="E. U. Essien-Udom">E. U. Essien-Udom</a>, Black Nationalism, University of Chicago Press, 1962.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Bowman,_Jeffrey_2006-20"><a href="#cite_ref-Bowman,_Jeffrey_2006_20-0">^</a> Bowman, Jeffrey. "Elijah Muhammad". Elijah Muhammad (2006): 1. MasterFILE Premier. Web. December 16, 2013.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://antilogicalism.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/malcom-x.pdf">"Autobiography of Malcolm X pg. 110–112"</a> (PDF).</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-In_the_Name_of_Elijah_Muhammad-22"><a href="#cite_ref-In_the_Name_of_Elijah_Muhammad_22-0">^</a> In the Name of Elijah Muhammad.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Evanzz-23"><a href="#cite_ref-Evanzz_23-0">^</a> Karl Evanzz, The Messenger: The Rise and Fall of Elijah Muhammad Random House, 2001.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Tucker_2018-24">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tucker_2018_24-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tucker_2018_24-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tucker_2018_24-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tucker_2018_24-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tucker_2018_24-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tucker_2018_24-5">f</a> Tucker, S. D. (2018). Quacks!: Dodgy Doctors and Foolish Fads Throughout History. <a href="Amberley_Publishing" title="Amberley Publishing">Amberley Publishing</a>. pp. 94-100. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-4456-7181-9</bdi>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Berg_2009-25">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Berg_2009_25-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Berg_2009_25-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Berg_2009_25-2">c</a> Berg, Herbert. (2009). Elijah Muhammad and Islam. New York University Press. p. 94. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0814791233</bdi>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> Tipton-Martin, Toni. (2022). The Jemima Code: Two Centuries of African American Cookbooks. University of Texas Press. pp. 122-123. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1477326718</bdi>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-27">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_27-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_27-1">b</a> Fraser, C. Gerald. "Elijah Muhammad Dead; Black Muslim Leader, 77". <a href="The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. February 26, 1975.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-MacF2007-28"><a href="#cite_ref-MacF2007_28-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFMacFarquhar2007" class="citation web cs1">MacFarquhar, Neil (February 26, 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2007/02/26/us/26farrakhan.html">"Nation of Islam at a Crossroad as Leader Exits"</a>. The New York Times. Retrieved February 8, 2013.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.splcenter.org/get-informed/intelligence-files/groups/nation-of-islam">"Nation of Islam"</a>. Southern Poverty Law Center.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Evanzz2001-30">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Evanzz2001_30-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Evanzz2001_30-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Evanzz2001_30-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Evanzz2001_30-3">d</a> <cite id="CITEREFEvanzz2001" class="citation book cs1">Evanzz, Karl (2001). The Messenger: The Rise and Fall of Elijah Muhammad was a greatleader. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. pp. 380–83. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0679774068</bdi>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Smothers1974-31"><a href="#cite_ref-Smothers1974_31-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFSmothers1974" class="citation web cs1">Smothers, David (July 21, 1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archives.chicagotribune.com/1974/07/21/page/45/article/the-facts-belie-the-aura-of-menace">"Black Muslims The Faces Belie the Aura of Menace"</a>. Chicago Tribune. Retrieved March 12, 2017.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Times63-12-02-32">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Times63-12-02_32-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Times63-12-02_32-1">b</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1963/12/02/archives/malcolm-x-scores-us-and-kennedy-likens-slaying-to-chickens-coming.html">"Malcolm X Scores U.S. and Kennedy"</a>. The New York Times. December 2, 1963. p. 21. Retrieved October 2, 2014.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Natambu2002-33"><a href="#cite_ref-Natambu2002_33-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFNatambu2002" class="citation book cs1">Natambu, Kofi (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lifeworkofmalcol0000nata/page/288">The Life and Work of Malcolm X</a>. Indianapolis: Alpha Books. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lifeworkofmalcol0000nata/page/288">288–90</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-02-864218-5</bdi>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Perry242-34"><a href="#cite_ref-Perry242_34-0">^</a> Perry, p. 242.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-youtube-interview-malcomx-35"><a href="#cite_ref-youtube-interview-malcomx_35-0">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oBDzhG3qsIM">"Malcolm X Exposes Elijah Muhammad"</a>. <a href="YouTube" title="YouTube">YouTube</a>. February 2, 2019. Retrieved August 24, 2022.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Perry251-36"><a href="#cite_ref-Perry251_36-0">^</a> Perry, pp. 251–52.

</li>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFCarson1991" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Clayborne_Carson" title="Clayborne Carson">Carson, Clayborne</a> (1991). Malcolm X: The FBI File. New York: Carroll & Graf. p. 473. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-88184-758-1</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFEvanzz1992" class="citation book cs1">Evanzz, Karl (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/judasfactorpl00evan/page/248">The Judas Factor: The Plot to Kill Malcolm X</a>. New York: Thunder's Mouth Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/judasfactorpl00evan/page/248">248, 264</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-56025-049-4</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFKarim1992" class="citation book cs1">Karim, Benjamin (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/rememberingmalco00kari/page/159">Remembering Malcolm</a>. with Peter Skutches and David Gallen. New York: Carroll & Graf. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/rememberingmalco00kari/page/159">159–60</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-88184-881-6</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFKondo1993" class="citation book cs1">Kondo, Zak A. (1993). Conspiracys: Unravelling the Assassination of Malcolm X. Washington, D.C.: Nubia Press. p. 170. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/28837295">28837295</a>.</cite></li></ul>

</li>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFKihss1965" class="citation web cs1">Kihss, Peter (February 22, 1965). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1965/02/22/archives/malcolm-x-shot-to-death-at-rally-here-three-other-negroes-wounded.html">"Malcolm X Shot to Death at Rally Here"</a>. The New York Times. Retrieved October 2, 2014.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFMarable2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Manning_Marable" title="Manning Marable">Marable, Manning</a> (2011). <a href="Malcolm_X%3A_A_Life_of_Reinvention" title="Malcolm X: A Life of Reinvention">Malcolm X: A Life of Reinvention</a>. New York: Viking. pp. 436–37. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-670-02220-5</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li>Perry, p. 366.</li></ul>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Evanzz301-39"><a href="#cite_ref-Evanzz301_39-0">^</a> Evanzz, p. 301. "Malcolm X got just what he preached", Elijah Muhammad said self-assuredly.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Clegg1997-40"><a href="#cite_ref-Clegg1997_40-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFClegg_III1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Claude_Clegg" title="Claude Clegg">Clegg III, Claude Andrew</a> (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/originalmanlifet0000cleg/page/232">An Original Man: The Life and Times of Elijah Muhammad</a>. New York: St. Martin's Griffin. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/originalmanlifet0000cleg/page/232">232</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-312-18153-6</bdi>. <q>'We didn't want to kill Malcolm and didn't try to kill him,' he explained. 'We know such ignorant, foolish teachings would bring him to his own end.'</q></cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Berg2009-41"><a href="#cite_ref-Berg2009_41-0">^</a> Malcolm X, February 1965, The Final Speeches, Pathfinder Press, 1992, pp. 146–147; Herbert Berg, Elijah Muhammad and Islam, NYU Press, 2009, p. 41.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Manning1997-42"><a href="#cite_ref-Manning1997_42-0">^</a> Evanzz, Karl, The Judas Factor, The Plot to Kill Malcolm X, pp. 205–206, Thunder's Mouth Press, NY, 1992; Marable, Manning, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://freepress.org/Backup/UnixBackup/pubhtml/manning/racism-1.html">Along the Color Line</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303180924/https://freepress.org/Backup/UnixBackup/pubhtml/manning/racism-1.html">Archived</a> March 3, 2016, at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, reprinted in the Columbus Free Press, January 17, 1997.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <a href="Washington_Post" class="mw-redirect" title="Washington Post">Washington Post</a>, May 6, 1967, p. E-15, July 2, 1967, January 30, 1975, p. B7; <a href="Hakim_Jamal" title="Hakim Jamal">Hakim Jamal</a>, From the Dead Level, pp. 247–48; <a href="Louis_Lomax" title="Louis Lomax">Louis Lomax</a> To Kill a Black Man, pp. 108–09; Karl Evanzz, The Judas Factor, pp. 284–86, The Messenger, p. 303.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> Rolinson, Mary, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TjiezD52cZoC&dq=muhammad+farms%2C+terrell&pg=PA193">Grassroots Garveyism</a>, p. 193, UNC Press Books, 2007.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Time1975-45"><a href="#cite_ref-Time1975_45-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110629021927/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,917218-1,00.html">"The Messenger Passes"</a>, <a href="Time_(magazine)" title="Time (magazine)">Time</a>, March 10, 1975.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> The Messenger, The Rise and Fall of Elijah Muhammad, pp. 241–242, Vintage Books, NY 2001. <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.anthonyflood.com/rockwellelijah.htm">"George Lincoln Rockwell Meets Elijah Muhammad"</a>. anthonyflood.com.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> Malcolm X, February 1965, The Final Speeches, pp. 144–145, 148,155. <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ozy.com/true-and-stories/defending-the-indefensible-in-feathers-and-all/76154/">"Defending the Indefensible, in Feathers and All"</a>. March 19, 2017.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <a href="The_Autobiography_of_Malcolm_X" title="The Autobiography of Malcolm X">The Autobiography of Malcolm X</a>, pp. 301–03; The Messenger, pp. 452–54.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://calisphere.org/item/e97e79862ed265410075b8b6890889f7/">"Gladys Towles Root and families"</a>. 1964.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1987/11/03/us/19-children-of-muslim-leader-battle-a-bank-for-5.7-million.html?pagewanted=1">"19 Children of Muslim Leader Battle a Bank for $5.7 Million"</a>. The New York Times. November 3, 1987.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1988/01/02/us/court-gives-leader-s-money-to-black-muslims.html?pagewanted=1">"Court Gives Leader's Money to Black Muslims"</a>, The New York Times. January 2, 1988.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> Broken Legacy, Chicago, December 1991.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Asante2002-53"><a href="#cite_ref-Asante2002_53-0">^</a> Asante, Molefi Kete (2002), 100 Greatest African Americans: A Biographical Encyclopedia. Amherst, New York: Prometheus Books. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>1-57392-963-8</bdi>.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFbluetunehead2001" class="citation web cs1">bluetunehead (December 25, 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0248667/">"Ali (2001)"</a>. IMDb.</cite>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<table class="infobox" style="width: 210px; clear: right; float:right;margin:0 0 1.5em 1.5em"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:115%">External videos</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.c-span.org/video/?79045-1/original-man-elijah-muhammad">Booknotes interview with Claude Andrew Clegg III on An Original Man: The Life and Times of Elijah Muhammad, March 30, 1997</a>, <a href="C-SPAN" title="C-SPAN">C-SPAN</a></td></tr></tbody></table>

<ul><li>Berg, Herbert. Elijah Muhammad and Islam (NYU Press, 2009)</li>

<li><a href="Claude_Clegg" title="Claude Clegg">Clegg, Claude Andrew</a>. An Original Man: The Life and Times of Elijah Muhammad (Macmillan, 1998)</li>

<li>Walker, Dennis. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/islamsearchforaf0000walk">Islam and the Search for African American Nationhood: Elijah Muhammad, Louis Farrakhan, and the Nation of Islam</a> (registration required) (Clarity Press, 1995)</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Elijah_Muhammad" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:Elijah Muhammad">Elijah Muhammad</a>.</div></div>

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<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110107154751/http://www.muhammadspeaks.com/">Elijah Muhammad's Teachings</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.noi.org/elijah_muhammad_history.htm">Nation of Islam official biography</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070113202150/http://www.seventhfam.com/">Seventh Family of the Nation of Islam</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.finalcall.com/national/savioursday2k/hem_nation.htm">Elijah Muhammad History</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.malcolmxreloaded.podomatic.com">Malcolm X Reloaded: Who Really Assassinated Malcolm X?</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://vault.fbi.gov/elijah-muhammad">FBI file on Elijah Muhammad</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.imdb.com/name/nm0611247/">Elijah Muhammad</a> at <a href="IMDb_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="IMDb (identifier)">IMDb</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.kingdomofislam.org/elijah-muhammad/">The Honorable Elijah Muhammad</a></li></ul>

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</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Civil_rights_movement_(1954–1968)366" style="wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#CEE0F2;"><div id="Civil_rights_movement_(1954–1968)366" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement</a> (1954–1968)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Events (<a href="Timeline_of_the_civil_rights_movement" title="Timeline of the civil rights movement">timeline</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee; vertical-align: middle">Prior to 1954</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Journey_of_Reconciliation" title="Journey of Reconciliation">Journey of Reconciliation</a></li>

<li><a href="Executive_Order_9981" title="Executive Order 9981">Executive Order 9981</a></li>

<li><a href="Murders_of_Harry_and_Harriette_Moore" title="Murders of Harry and Harriette Moore">Murders of Harry and Harriette Moore</a></li>

<li><a href="Sweatt_v._Painter" title="Sweatt v. Painter">Sweatt v. Painter</a> (1950)</li>

<li><a href="McLaurin_v._Oklahoma_State_Regents" title="McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents">McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents</a> (1950)</li>

<li><a href="Baton_Rouge_bus_boycott" title="Baton Rouge bus boycott">Baton Rouge bus boycott</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee; vertical-align: middle">1954–1959</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a>

<ul><li><a href="Bolling_v._Sharpe" title="Bolling v. Sharpe">Bolling v. Sharpe</a></li>

<li><a href="Briggs_v._Elliott" title="Briggs v. Elliott">Briggs v. Elliott</a></li>

<li><a href="Davis_v._County_School_Board_of_Prince_Edward_County" title="Davis v. County School Board of Prince Edward County">Davis v. Prince Edward County</a></li>

<li><a href="Gebhart_v._Belton" title="Gebhart v. Belton">Gebhart v. Belton</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Keys_v._Carolina_Coach_Co." title="Keys v. Carolina Coach Co.">Sarah Keys v. Carolina Coach Company</a></li>

<li><a href="Emmett_Till" title="Emmett Till">Emmett Till</a></li>

<li><a href="Montgomery_bus_boycott" title="Montgomery bus boycott">Montgomery bus boycott</a>

<ul><li><a href="Browder_v._Gayle" title="Browder v. Gayle">Browder v. Gayle</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Tallahassee_bus_boycott" title="Tallahassee bus boycott">Tallahassee bus boycott</a></li>

<li><a href="Mansfield_school_desegregation_incident" title="Mansfield school desegregation incident">Mansfield school desegregation</a></li>

<li><a href="Prayer_Pilgrimage_for_Freedom" title="Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom">1957 Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom</a>

<ul><li>"<a href="Give_Us_the_Ballot" title="Give Us the Ballot">Give Us the Ballot</a>"</li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Royal_Ice_Cream_sit-in" title="Royal Ice Cream sit-in">Royal Ice Cream sit-in</a></li>

<li><a href="Little_Rock_Nine" title="Little Rock Nine">Little Rock Nine</a>

<ul><li><a href="Cooper_v._Aaron" title="Cooper v. Aaron">Cooper v. Aaron</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Civil_Rights_Act_of_1957" title="Civil Rights Act of 1957">Civil Rights Act of 1957</a></li>

<li><a href="Ministers'_Manifesto" title="Ministers' Manifesto">Ministers' Manifesto</a></li>

<li><a href="Katz_Drug_Store_sit-in" title="Katz Drug Store sit-in">Katz Drug Store sit-in</a></li>

<li><a href="Kissing_Case" title="Kissing Case">Kissing Case</a></li>

<li><a href="Biloxi_wade-ins" title="Biloxi wade-ins">Biloxi wade-ins</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee; vertical-align: middle">1960–1963</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="New_Year's_Day_March" title="New Year's Day March">New Year's Day March</a></li>

<li><a href="Sit-in_movement" title="Sit-in movement">Sit-in movement</a></li>

<li><a href="Greensboro_sit-ins" title="Greensboro sit-ins">Greensboro sit-ins</a></li>

<li><a href="Nashville_sit-ins" title="Nashville sit-ins">Nashville sit-ins</a></li>

<li><a href="Sibley_Commission" title="Sibley Commission">Sibley Commission</a></li>

<li><a href="Atlanta_sit-ins" title="Atlanta sit-ins">Atlanta sit-ins</a></li>

<li><a href="Savannah_Protest_Movement" title="Savannah Protest Movement">Savannah Protest Movement</a></li>

<li><a href="Greenville_Eight" title="Greenville Eight">Greenville Eight</a></li>

<li><a href="Civil_Rights_Act_of_1960" title="Civil Rights Act of 1960">Civil Rights Act of 1960</a></li>

<li><a href="Ax_Handle_Saturday" title="Ax Handle Saturday">Ax Handle Saturday</a></li>

<li><a href="New_Orleans_school_desegregation_crisis" title="New Orleans school desegregation crisis">New Orleans school desegregation</a></li>

<li><a href="Gomillion_v._Lightfoot" title="Gomillion v. Lightfoot">Gomillion v. Lightfoot</a></li>

<li><a href="Boynton_v._Virginia" title="Boynton v. Virginia">Boynton v. Virginia</a></li>

<li><a href="University_of_Georgia_desegregation_riot" title="University of Georgia desegregation riot">University of Georgia desegregation riot</a></li>

<li><a href="Law_Day_Address" title="Law Day Address">Robert F. Kennedy's Law Day Address</a></li>

<li><a href="Freedom_Riders" title="Freedom Riders">Freedom Rides</a>

<ul><li><a href="Anniston_and_Birmingham_bus_attacks" title="Anniston and Birmingham bus attacks">Anniston and Birmingham bus attacks</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Garner_v._Louisiana" title="Garner v. Louisiana">Garner v. Louisiana</a></li>

<li><a href="Albany_Movement" title="Albany Movement">Albany Movement</a></li>

<li><a href="Cambridge_movement_(civil_rights)" title="Cambridge movement (civil rights)">Cambridge movement</a></li>

<li><a href="University_of_Chicago_sit-ins" title="University of Chicago sit-ins">University of Chicago sit-ins</a></li>

<li>"<a href="Second_Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Second Emancipation Proclamation">Second Emancipation Proclamation</a>"</li>

<li><a href="Ole_Miss_riot_of_1962" title="Ole Miss riot of 1962">Meredith enrollment, Ole Miss riot</a></li>

<li><a href="Atlanta's_Berlin_Wall" title="Atlanta's Berlin Wall">Atlanta's Berlin Wall</a></li>

<li><a href="George_Wallace's_1963_Inaugural_Address" class="mw-redirect" title="George Wallace's 1963 Inaugural Address">"Segregation now, segregation forever"</a>

<ul><li><a href="Stand_in_the_Schoolhouse_Door" title="Stand in the Schoolhouse Door">Stand in the Schoolhouse Door</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Birmingham_campaign" title="Birmingham campaign">1963 Birmingham campaign</a>

<ul><li><a href="Letter_from_Birmingham_Jail" title="Letter from Birmingham Jail">Letter from Birmingham Jail</a></li>

<li><a href="Children's_Crusade_(1963)" title="Children's Crusade (1963)">Children's Crusade</a></li>

<li><a href="Birmingham_riot_of_1963" title="Birmingham riot of 1963">Birmingham riot</a></li>

<li><a href="16th_Street_Baptist_Church_bombing" title="16th Street Baptist Church bombing">16th Street Baptist Church bombing</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Report_to_the_American_People_on_Civil_Rights" title="Report to the American People on Civil Rights">John F. Kennedy's speech to the nation on Civil Rights</a></li>

<li><a href="Detroit_Walk_to_Freedom" title="Detroit Walk to Freedom">Detroit Walk to Freedom</a></li>

<li><a href="March_on_Washington" title="March on Washington">March on Washington</a>

<ul><li><a href="I_Have_a_Dream" title="I Have a Dream">"I Have a Dream"</a></li>

<li><a href="St._Augustine_movement" title="St. Augustine movement">St. Augustine movement</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee; vertical-align: middle">1964–1968</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Twenty-fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Twenty-fourth Amendment</a></li>

<li><a href="Chester_school_protests" title="Chester school protests">Chester school protests</a></li>

<li><a href="Bloody_Tuesday_(1964)" title="Bloody Tuesday (1964)">Bloody Tuesday</a></li>

<li><a href="1964_Monson_Motor_Lodge_protests" title="1964 Monson Motor Lodge protests">1964 Monson Motor Lodge protests</a></li>

<li><a href="Freedom_Summer" title="Freedom Summer">Freedom Summer</a>

<ul><li><a href="Murders_of_Chaney%2C_Goodman%2C_and_Schwerner" title="Murders of Chaney, Goodman, and Schwerner">workers' murders</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a></li>

<li><a href="Heart_of_Atlanta_Motel%2C_Inc._v._United_States" title="Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States">Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States</a></li>

<li><a href="Katzenbach_v._McClung" title="Katzenbach v. McClung">Katzenbach v. McClung</a></li>

<li><a href="1964%E2%80%931965_Scripto_strike" title="1964–1965 Scripto strike">1964–1965 Scripto strike</a></li>

<li><a href="Selma_to_Montgomery_marches" title="Selma to Montgomery marches">1965 Selma to Montgomery marches</a>

<li><a href="SCOPE_Project" title="SCOPE Project">SCOPE Project</a></li>

<li><a href="Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965" title="Voting Rights Act of 1965">Voting Rights Act of 1965</a></li>

<li><a href="Harper_v._Virginia_State_Board_of_Elections" title="Harper v. Virginia State Board of Elections">Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections</a></li>

<li><a href="March_Against_Fear" title="March Against Fear">March Against Fear</a></li>

<li><a href="White_House_Conference_on_Civil_Rights" title="White House Conference on Civil Rights">White House Conference on Civil Rights</a></li>

<li><a href="Chicago_Freedom_Movement" title="Chicago Freedom Movement">Chicago Freedom Movement/Chicago open housing movement</a></li>

<li><a href="Loving_v._Virginia" title="Loving v. Virginia">Loving v. Virginia</a></li>

<li><a href="Memphis_sanitation_strike" title="Memphis sanitation strike">Memphis sanitation strike</a></li>

<li><a href="Assassination_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.">King assassination</a>

<ul><li><a href="Funeral_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Funeral of Martin Luther King Jr.">funeral</a></li>

<li><a href="King_assassination_riots" title="King assassination riots">riots</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Civil_Rights_Act_of_1968" title="Civil Rights Act of 1968">Civil Rights Act of 1968</a></li>

<li><a href="Poor_People's_Campaign" title="Poor People's Campaign">Poor People's Campaign</a></li>

<li><a href="Green_v._County_School_Board_of_New_Kent_County" title="Green v. County School Board of New Kent County">Green v. County School Board of New Kent County</a></li>

<li><a href="Jones_v._Alfred_H._Mayer_Co." title="Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co.">Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co.</a></li>

<li><a href="1968_Olympics_Black_Power_salute" title="1968 Olympics Black Power salute">1968 Olympics Black Power salute</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Activist groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Alabama_Christian_Movement_for_Human_Rights" title="Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights">Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights</a></li>

<li><a href="American_Friends_Service_Committee" title="American Friends Service Committee">American Friends Service Committee</a></li>

<li><a href="Atlanta_Negro_Voters_League" title="Atlanta Negro Voters League">Atlanta Negro Voters League</a></li>

<li><a href="Atlanta_Student_Movement" title="Atlanta Student Movement">Atlanta Student Movement</a></li>

<li><a href="Black_Panther_Party" title="Black Panther Party">Black Panther Party</a></li>

<li><a href="Brotherhood_of_Sleeping_Car_Porters" title="Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters">Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters</a></li>

<li><a href="Congress_of_Racial_Equality" title="Congress of Racial Equality">Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)</a></li>

<li><a href="Committee_for_Freedom_Now" title="Committee for Freedom Now">Committee for Freedom Now</a></li>

<li><a href="Committee_on_Appeal_for_Human_Rights" title="Committee on Appeal for Human Rights">Committee on Appeal for Human Rights</a>

<ul><li><a href="An_Appeal_for_Human_Rights" title="An Appeal for Human Rights">An Appeal for Human Rights</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Council_for_United_Civil_Rights_Leadership" title="Council for United Civil Rights Leadership">Council for United Civil Rights Leadership</a></li>

<li><a href="Council_of_Federated_Organizations" title="Council of Federated Organizations">Council of Federated Organizations</a></li>

<li><a href="Dallas_County_Voters_League" title="Dallas County Voters League">Dallas County Voters League</a></li>

<li><a href="Deacons_for_Defense_and_Justice" title="Deacons for Defense and Justice">Deacons for Defense and Justice</a></li>

<li><a href="Georgia_Council_on_Human_Relations" title="Georgia Council on Human Relations">Georgia Council on Human Relations</a></li>

<li><a href="Highlander_Research_and_Education_Center" title="Highlander Research and Education Center">Highlander Folk School</a></li>

<li><a href="Leadership_Conference_on_Civil_and_Human_Rights" title="Leadership Conference on Civil and Human Rights">Leadership Conference on Civil and Human Rights</a></li>

<li><a href="Lowndes_County_Freedom_Organization" title="Lowndes County Freedom Organization">Lowndes County Freedom Organization</a></li>

<li><a href="Mississippi_Freedom_Democratic_Party" title="Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party">Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party</a></li>

<li><a href="Montgomery_Improvement_Association" title="Montgomery Improvement Association">Montgomery Improvement Association</a></li>

<li><a href="NAACP" title="NAACP">NAACP</a>

<ul><li><a href="NAACP_Youth_Council" title="NAACP Youth Council">Youth Council</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Nashville_Student_Movement" title="Nashville Student Movement">Nashville Student Movement</a></li>

<li><a href="Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a></li>

<li><a href="Northern_Student_Movement" title="Northern Student Movement">Northern Student Movement</a></li>

<li><a href="National_Council_of_Negro_Women" title="National Council of Negro Women">National Council of Negro Women</a></li>

<li><a href="National_Urban_League" title="National Urban League">National Urban League</a></li>

<li><a href="Operation_Breadbasket" title="Operation Breadbasket">Operation Breadbasket</a></li>

<li><a href="Regional_Council_of_Negro_Leadership" title="Regional Council of Negro Leadership">Regional Council of Negro Leadership</a></li>

<li><a href="Southern_Christian_Leadership_Conference" title="Southern Christian Leadership Conference">Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)</a></li>

<li><a href="Southern_Regional_Council" title="Southern Regional Council">Southern Regional Council</a></li>

<li><a href="Student_Nonviolent_Coordinating_Committee" title="Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee">Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)</a></li>

<li><a href="The_Freedom_Singers" title="The Freedom Singers">The Freedom Singers</a></li>

<li><a href="United_Auto_Workers" title="United Auto Workers">United Auto Workers (UAW)</a></li>

<li><a href="Wednesdays_in_Mississippi" title="Wednesdays in Mississippi">Wednesdays in Mississippi</a></li>

<li><a href="Women's_Political_Council" title="Women's Political Council">Women's Political Council</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Activists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Juanita_Abernathy" title="Juanita Abernathy">Juanita Abernathy</a></li>

<li><a href="Ralph_Abernathy" title="Ralph Abernathy">Ralph Abernathy</a></li>

<li><a href="Victoria_Gray_Adams" title="Victoria Gray Adams">Victoria Gray Adams</a></li>

<li><a href="Zev_Aelony" title="Zev Aelony">Zev Aelony</a></li>

<li><a href="Mathew_Ahmann" title="Mathew Ahmann">Mathew Ahmann</a></li>

<li><a href="Muhammad_Ali" title="Muhammad Ali">Muhammad Ali</a></li>

<li><a href="William_G._Anderson" title="William G. Anderson">William G. Anderson</a></li>

<li><a href="Gwendolyn_Elaine_Armstrong" title="Gwendolyn Elaine Armstrong">Gwendolyn Armstrong</a></li>

<li><a href="Arnold_Aronson" title="Arnold Aronson">Arnold Aronson</a></li>

<li><a href="Ella_Baker" title="Ella Baker">Ella Baker</a></li>

<li><a href="James_Baldwin" title="James Baldwin">James Baldwin</a></li>

<li><a href="Marion_Barry" title="Marion Barry">Marion Barry</a></li>

<li><a href="Daisy_Bates_(activist)" title="Daisy Bates (activist)">Daisy Bates</a></li>

<li><a href="Harry_Belafonte" title="Harry Belafonte">Harry Belafonte</a></li>

<li><a href="James_Bevel" title="James Bevel">James Bevel</a></li>

<li><a href="Claude_Black_(minister)" title="Claude Black (minister)">Claude Black</a></li>

<li><a href="Gloria_Blackwell" title="Gloria Blackwell">Gloria Blackwell</a></li>

<li><a href="Randolph_Blackwell" title="Randolph Blackwell">Randolph Blackwell</a></li>

<li><a href="Unita_Blackwell" title="Unita Blackwell">Unita Blackwell</a></li>

<li><a href="Ezell_Blair_Jr." title="Ezell Blair Jr.">Ezell Blair Jr.</a></li>

<li><a href="Joanne_Bland" title="Joanne Bland">Joanne Bland</a></li>

<li><a href="Julian_Bond" title="Julian Bond">Julian Bond</a></li>

<li><a href="Joseph_E._Boone" title="Joseph E. Boone">Joseph E. Boone</a></li>

<li><a href="William_Holmes_Borders" title="William Holmes Borders">William Holmes Borders</a></li>

<li><a href="Amelia_Boynton_Robinson" title="Amelia Boynton Robinson">Amelia Boynton</a></li>

<li><a href="Bruce_Boynton" title="Bruce Boynton">Bruce Boynton</a></li>

<li><a href="Raylawni_Branch" title="Raylawni Branch">Raylawni Branch</a></li>

<li><a href="Stanley_Branche" title="Stanley Branche">Stanley Branche</a></li>

<li><a href="Ruby_Bridges" title="Ruby Bridges">Ruby Bridges</a></li>

<li><a href="Aurelia_Browder" title="Aurelia Browder">Aurelia Browder</a></li>

<li><a href="H._Rap_Brown" title="H. Rap Brown">H. Rap Brown</a></li>

<li><a href="Ralph_Bunche" title="Ralph Bunche">Ralph Bunche</a></li>

<li><a href="John_H._Calhoun" title="John H. Calhoun">John H. Calhoun</a></li>

<li><a href="Guy_Carawan" title="Guy Carawan">Guy Carawan</a></li>

<li><a href="Stokely_Carmichael" title="Stokely Carmichael">Stokely Carmichael</a></li>

<li><a href="Johnnie_Carr" title="Johnnie Carr">Johnnie Carr</a></li>

<li><a href="James_Chaney" title="James Chaney">James Chaney</a></li>

<li><a href="J._L._Chestnut_Jr." title="J. L. Chestnut Jr.">J. L. Chestnut</a></li>

<li><a href="Shirley_Chisholm" title="Shirley Chisholm">Shirley Chisholm</a></li>

<li><a href="Colia_Clark" title="Colia Clark">Colia Lafayette Clark</a></li>

<li><a href="Ramsey_Clark" title="Ramsey Clark">Ramsey Clark</a></li>

<li><a href="Septima_Poinsette_Clark" title="Septima Poinsette Clark">Septima Clark</a></li>

<li><a href="Xernona_Clayton" title="Xernona Clayton">Xernona Clayton</a></li>

<li><a href="Eldridge_Cleaver" title="Eldridge Cleaver">Eldridge Cleaver</a></li>

<li><a href="Kathleen_Cleaver" title="Kathleen Cleaver">Kathleen Cleaver</a></li>

<li><a href="Josephine_Dobbs_Clement" title="Josephine Dobbs Clement">Josephine Dobbs Clement</a></li>

<li><a href="Charles_E._Cobb_Jr." title="Charles E. Cobb Jr.">Charles E. Cobb Jr.</a></li>

<li><a href="Annie_Lee_Cooper" title="Annie Lee Cooper">Annie Lee Cooper</a></li>

<li><a href="Dorothy_Cotton" title="Dorothy Cotton">Dorothy Cotton</a></li>

<li><a href="Claudette_Colvin" title="Claudette Colvin">Claudette Colvin</a></li>

<li><a href="Vernon_Dahmer" title="Vernon Dahmer">Vernon Dahmer</a></li>

<li><a href="Jonathan_Daniels" title="Jonathan Daniels">Jonathan Daniels</a></li>

<li><a href="Abraham_Lincoln_Davis" title="Abraham Lincoln Davis">Abraham Lincoln Davis</a></li>

<li><a href="Angela_Davis" title="Angela Davis">Angela Davis</a></li>

<li><a href="Joseph_DeLaine" title="Joseph DeLaine">Joseph DeLaine</a></li>

<li><a href="Dave_Dennis_(activist)" title="Dave Dennis (activist)">Dave Dennis</a></li>

<li><a href="Annie_Bell_Robinson_Devine" title="Annie Bell Robinson Devine">Annie Bell Robinson Devine</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Wesley_Dobbs" title="John Wesley Dobbs">John Wesley Dobbs</a></li>

<li><a href="Patricia_Stephens_Due" title="Patricia Stephens Due">Patricia Stephens Due</a></li>

<li><a href="Joseph_Ellwanger" title="Joseph Ellwanger">Joseph Ellwanger</a></li>

<li><a href="Charles_Evers" title="Charles Evers">Charles Evers</a></li>

<li><a href="Medgar_Evers" title="Medgar Evers">Medgar Evers</a></li>

<li><a href="Myrlie_Evers-Williams" title="Myrlie Evers-Williams">Myrlie Evers-Williams</a></li>

<li><a href="Chuck_Fager" title="Chuck Fager">Chuck Fager</a></li>

<li><a href="James_Farmer" title="James Farmer">James Farmer</a></li>

<li><a href="Walter_Fauntroy" title="Walter Fauntroy">Walter Fauntroy</a></li>

<li><a href="James_Forman" title="James Forman">James Forman</a></li>

<li><a href="Marie_Foster" title="Marie Foster">Marie Foster</a></li>

<li><a href="Golden_Frinks" title="Golden Frinks">Golden Frinks</a></li>

<li><a href="Andrew_Goodman_(activist)" title="Andrew Goodman (activist)">Andrew Goodman</a></li>

<li><a href="Robert_Graetz" title="Robert Graetz">Robert Graetz</a></li>

<li><a href="Jack_Greenberg" title="Jack Greenberg">Jack Greenberg</a></li>

<li><a href="Dick_Gregory" title="Dick Gregory">Dick Gregory</a></li>

<li><a href="Lawrence_Guyot" title="Lawrence Guyot">Lawrence Guyot</a></li>

<li><a href="Prathia_Hall" title="Prathia Hall">Prathia Hall</a></li>

<li><a href="Fannie_Lou_Hamer" title="Fannie Lou Hamer">Fannie Lou Hamer</a></li>

<li><a href="Fred_Hampton" title="Fred Hampton">Fred Hampton</a></li>

<li><a href="William_E._Harbour" title="William E. Harbour">William E. Harbour</a></li>

<li><a href="Vincent_Harding" title="Vincent Harding">Vincent Harding</a></li>

<li><a href="Dorothy_Height" title="Dorothy Height">Dorothy Height</a></li>

<li><a href="Audrey_Faye_Hendricks" title="Audrey Faye Hendricks">Audrey Faye Hendricks</a></li>

<li><a href="Lola_Hendricks" title="Lola Hendricks">Lola Hendricks</a></li>

<li><a href="Aaron_Henry_(politician)" title="Aaron Henry (politician)">Aaron Henry</a></li>

<li><a href="Oliver_Hill_(attorney)" title="Oliver Hill (attorney)">Oliver Hill</a></li>

<li><a href="Donald_L._Hollowell" title="Donald L. Hollowell">Donald L. Hollowell</a></li>

<li><a href="James_Hood" title="James Hood">James Hood</a></li>

<li><a href="Myles_Horton" title="Myles Horton">Myles Horton</a></li>

<li><a href="Zilphia_Horton" title="Zilphia Horton">Zilphia Horton</a></li>

<li><a href="T._R._M._Howard" title="T. R. M. Howard">T. R. M. Howard</a></li>

<li><a href="Ruby_Hurley" title="Ruby Hurley">Ruby Hurley</a></li>

<li><a href="Cecil_Ivory" title="Cecil Ivory">Cecil Ivory</a></li>

<li><a href="Jesse_Jackson" title="Jesse Jackson">Jesse Jackson</a></li>

<li><a href="Murder_of_Jimmie_Lee_Jackson" title="Murder of Jimmie Lee Jackson">Jimmie Lee Jackson</a></li>

<li><a href="Richie_Jean_Jackson" title="Richie Jean Jackson">Richie Jean Jackson</a></li>

<li><a href="T._J._Jemison" title="T. J. Jemison">T. J. Jemison</a></li>

<li><a href="Esau_Jenkins" title="Esau Jenkins">Esau Jenkins</a></li>

<li><a href="Barbara_Rose_Johns" title="Barbara Rose Johns">Barbara Rose Johns</a></li>

<li><a href="Vernon_Johns" title="Vernon Johns">Vernon Johns</a></li>

<li><a href="Frank_Minis_Johnson" title="Frank Minis Johnson">Frank Minis Johnson</a></li>

<li><a href="Clarence_B._Jones" title="Clarence B. Jones">Clarence Jones</a></li>

<li><a href="J._Charles_Jones" title="J. Charles Jones">J. Charles Jones</a></li>

<li><a href="Matthew_Jones_(activist)" title="Matthew Jones (activist)">Matthew Jones</a></li>

<li><a href="Vernon_Jordan" title="Vernon Jordan">Vernon Jordan</a></li>

<li><a href="Clyde_Kennard" title="Clyde Kennard">Clyde Kennard</a></li>

<li><a href="Coretta_Scott_King" title="Coretta Scott King">Coretta Scott King</a></li>

<li><a href="Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a></li>

<li><a href="Martin_Luther_King_Sr." title="Martin Luther King Sr.">Martin Luther King Sr.</a></li>

<li><a href="Bernard_Lafayette" title="Bernard Lafayette">Bernard Lafayette</a></li>

<li><a href="James_Lawson_(activist)" title="James Lawson (activist)">James Lawson</a></li>

<li><a href="Bernard_Lee_(activist)" title="Bernard Lee (activist)">Bernard Lee</a></li>

<li><a href="Sanford_R._Leigh" title="Sanford R. Leigh">Sanford R. Leigh</a></li>

<li><a href="Jim_Letherer" title="Jim Letherer">Jim Letherer</a></li>

<li><a href="Stanley_Levison" title="Stanley Levison">Stanley Levison</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Lewis" title="John Lewis">John Lewis</a></li>

<li><a href="Viola_Liuzzo" title="Viola Liuzzo">Viola Liuzzo</a></li>

<li><a href="Z._Alexander_Looby" title="Z. Alexander Looby">Z. Alexander Looby</a></li>

<li><a href="Joseph_Lowery" title="Joseph Lowery">Joseph Lowery</a></li>

<li><a href="Clara_Luper" title="Clara Luper">Clara Luper</a></li>

<li><a href="Danny_Lyon" title="Danny Lyon">Danny Lyon</a></li>

<li><a href="Malcolm_X" title="Malcolm X">Malcolm X</a></li>

<li><a href="Mae_Mallory" title="Mae Mallory">Mae Mallory</a></li>

<li><a href="Vivian_Malone_Jones" title="Vivian Malone Jones">Vivian Malone</a></li>

<li><a href="Bob_Mants" title="Bob Mants">Bob Mants</a></li>

<li><a href="Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Thurgood Marshall</a></li>

<li><a href="Benjamin_Mays" title="Benjamin Mays">Benjamin Mays</a></li>

<li><a href="Franklin_McCain" title="Franklin McCain">Franklin McCain</a></li>

<li><a href="Charles_McDew" title="Charles McDew">Charles McDew</a></li>

<li><a href="Ralph_McGill" title="Ralph McGill">Ralph McGill</a></li>

<li><a href="Floyd_McKissick" title="Floyd McKissick">Floyd McKissick</a></li>

<li><a href="Joseph_McNeil" title="Joseph McNeil">Joseph McNeil</a></li>

<li><a href="James_Meredith" title="James Meredith">James Meredith</a></li>

<li><a href="William_Robert_Ming" title="William Robert Ming">William Ming</a></li>

<li><a href="Jack_Minnis" title="Jack Minnis">Jack Minnis</a></li>

<li><a href="Amzie_Moore" title="Amzie Moore">Amzie Moore</a></li>

<li><a href="Cecil_B._Moore" title="Cecil B. Moore">Cecil B. Moore</a></li>

<li><a href="Douglas_E._Moore" title="Douglas E. Moore">Douglas E. Moore</a></li>

<li><a href="Harriette_Moore" title="Harriette Moore">Harriette Moore</a></li>

<li><a href="Harry_T._Moore" title="Harry T. Moore">Harry T. Moore</a></li>

<li><a href="Queen_Mother_Moore" title="Queen Mother Moore">Queen Mother Moore</a></li>

<li><a href="William_Lewis_Moore" title="William Lewis Moore">William Lewis Moore</a></li>

<li><a href="Irene_Morgan" title="Irene Morgan">Irene Morgan</a></li>

<li><a href="Bob_Moses_(activist)" title="Bob Moses (activist)">Bob Moses</a></li>

<li><a href="William_Moyer" title="William Moyer">William Moyer</a></li>

<li><a href="Diane_Nash" title="Diane Nash">Diane Nash</a></li>

<li><a href="Charles_Neblett" title="Charles Neblett">Charles Neblett</a></li>

<li><a href="Huey_P._Newton" title="Huey P. Newton">Huey P. Newton</a></li>

<li><a href="E._D._Nixon" title="E. D. Nixon">Edgar Nixon</a></li>

<li><a href="James_Orange" title="James Orange">James Orange</a></li>

<li><a href="Rosa_Parks" title="Rosa Parks">Rosa Parks</a></li>

<li><a href="James_Peck_(pacifist)" title="James Peck (pacifist)">James Peck</a></li>

<li><a href="Charles_Person" title="Charles Person">Charles Person</a></li>

<li><a href="Homer_Plessy" title="Homer Plessy">Homer Plessy</a></li>

<li><a href="Adam_Clayton_Powell_Jr." title="Adam Clayton Powell Jr.">Adam Clayton Powell Jr.</a></li>

<li><a href="Fay_Bellamy_Powell" title="Fay Bellamy Powell">Fay Bellamy Powell</a></li>

<li><a href="Rodney_N._Powell" title="Rodney N. Powell">Rodney N. Powell</a></li>

<li><a href="Lincoln_Ragsdale" title="Lincoln Ragsdale">Lincoln Ragsdale</a></li>

<li><a href="A._Philip_Randolph" title="A. Philip Randolph">A. Philip Randolph</a></li>

<li><a href="George_Raymond" title="George Raymond">George Raymond</a></li>

<li><a href="George_Raymond_Jr." title="George Raymond Jr.">George Raymond Jr.</a></li>

<li><a href="Bernice_Johnson_Reagon" title="Bernice Johnson Reagon">Bernice Johnson Reagon</a></li>

<li><a href="Cordell_Reagon" title="Cordell Reagon">Cordell Reagon</a></li>

<li><a href="James_Reeb" title="James Reeb">James Reeb</a></li>

<li><a href="Frederick_D._Reese" title="Frederick D. Reese">Frederick D. Reese</a></li>

<li><a href="Walter_Reuther" title="Walter Reuther">Walter Reuther</a></li>

<li><a href="Gloria_Richardson" title="Gloria Richardson">Gloria Richardson</a></li>

<li><a href="David_Richmond_(activist)" title="David Richmond (activist)">David Richmond</a></li>

<li><a href="Bernice_Robinson" title="Bernice Robinson">Bernice Robinson</a></li>

<li><a href="Jo_Ann_Robinson" title="Jo Ann Robinson">Jo Ann Robinson</a></li>

<li><a href="Angela_Russell_(politician)" title="Angela Russell (politician)">Angela Russell</a></li>

<li><a href="Bayard_Rustin" title="Bayard Rustin">Bayard Rustin</a></li>

<li><a href="Bernie_Sanders" title="Bernie Sanders">Bernie Sanders</a></li>

<li><a href="Michael_Schwerner" title="Michael Schwerner">Michael Schwerner</a></li>

<li><a href="Bobby_Seale" title="Bobby Seale">Bobby Seale</a></li>

<li><a href="Pete_Seeger" title="Pete Seeger">Pete Seeger</a></li>

<li><a href="Cleveland_Sellers" title="Cleveland Sellers">Cleveland Sellers</a></li>

<li><a href="Charles_Sherrod" title="Charles Sherrod">Charles Sherrod</a></li>

<li><a href="Alexander_D._Shimkin" title="Alexander D. Shimkin">Alexander D. Shimkin</a></li>

<li><a href="Fred_Shuttlesworth" title="Fred Shuttlesworth">Fred Shuttlesworth</a></li>

<li><a href="Modjeska_Monteith_Simkins" title="Modjeska Monteith Simkins">Modjeska Monteith Simkins</a></li>

<li><a href="Glenn_E._Smiley" title="Glenn E. Smiley">Glenn E. Smiley</a></li>

<li><a href="A._Maceo_Smith" title="A. Maceo Smith">A. Maceo Smith</a></li>

<li><a href="Kelly_Miller_Smith" title="Kelly Miller Smith">Kelly Miller Smith</a></li>

<li><a href="Mary_Louise_Smith_(activist)" title="Mary Louise Smith (activist)">Mary Louise Smith</a></li>

<li><a href="Maxine_Smith" title="Maxine Smith">Maxine Smith</a></li>

<li><a href="Ruby_Doris_Smith-Robinson" title="Ruby Doris Smith-Robinson">Ruby Doris Smith-Robinson</a></li>

<li><a href="Charles_Kenzie_Steele" title="Charles Kenzie Steele">Charles Kenzie Steele</a></li>

<li><a href="Hank_Thomas" title="Hank Thomas">Hank Thomas</a></li>

<li><a href="Dorothy_Tillman" title="Dorothy Tillman">Dorothy Tillman</a></li>

<li><a href="A._P._Tureaud" title="A. P. Tureaud">A. P. Tureaud</a></li>

<li><a href="Hartman_Turnbow" title="Hartman Turnbow">Hartman Turnbow</a></li>

<li><a href="Albert_Turner_(activist)" title="Albert Turner (activist)">Albert Turner</a></li>

<li><a href="C._T._Vivian" title="C. T. Vivian">C. T. Vivian</a></li>

<li><a href="A._T._Walden" title="A. T. Walden">A. T. Walden</a></li>

<li><a href="Wyatt_Tee_Walker" title="Wyatt Tee Walker">Wyatt Tee Walker</a></li>

<li><a href="Hollis_Watkins" title="Hollis Watkins">Hollis Watkins</a></li>

<li><a href="Walter_Francis_White" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter Francis White">Walter Francis White</a></li>

<li><a href="Roy_Wilkins" title="Roy Wilkins">Roy Wilkins</a></li>

<li><a href="Hosea_Williams" title="Hosea Williams">Hosea Williams</a></li>

<li><a href="Chicago_Freedom_Movement" title="Chicago Freedom Movement">Kale Williams</a></li>

<li><a href="Robert_F._Williams" title="Robert F. Williams">Robert F. Williams</a></li>

<li><a href="Q._V._Williamson" title="Q. V. Williamson">Q. V. Williamson</a></li>

<li><a href="Andrew_Young" title="Andrew Young">Andrew Young</a></li>

<li><a href="Whitney_Young" title="Whitney Young">Whitney Young</a></li>

<li><a href="Sammy_Younge_Jr." title="Sammy Younge Jr.">Sammy Younge Jr.</a></li>

<li><a href="Bob_Zellner" title="Bob Zellner">Bob Zellner</a></li>

<li><a href="James_Zwerg" title="James Zwerg">James Zwerg</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">By region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Civil_rights_movement_in_Omaha%2C_Nebraska" title="Civil rights movement in Omaha, Nebraska">Omaha, Nebraska</a></li>

<li><a href="South_Carolina_in_the_civil_rights_movement" title="South Carolina in the civil rights movement">South Carolina</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Movement songs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Ain't_Gonna_Let_Nobody_Turn_Me_'Round" title="Ain't Gonna Let Nobody Turn Me 'Round">"Ain't Gonna Let Nobody Turn Me 'Round"</a></li>

<li><a href="Kumbaya" title="Kumbaya">"Kumbaya"</a></li>

<li><a href="Keep_Your_Eyes_on_the_Prize" title="Keep Your Eyes on the Prize">"Keep Your Eyes on the Prize"</a></li>

<li><a href="Oh%2C_Freedom" title="Oh, Freedom">"Oh, Freedom"</a></li>

<li><a href="This_Little_Light_of_Mine" title="This Little Light of Mine">"This Little Light of Mine"</a></li>

<li><a href="I_Shall_Not_Be_Moved" title="I Shall Not Be Moved">"We Shall Not Be Moved"</a></li>

<li><a href="We_Shall_Overcome" title="We Shall Overcome">"We Shall Overcome"</a></li>

<li><a href="Woke_Up_This_Morning_(With_My_Mind_Stayed_On_Freedom)" title="Woke Up This Morning (With My Mind Stayed On Freedom)">"Woke Up This Morning (With My Mind Stayed On Freedom)"</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Influences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Nonviolence" title="Nonviolence">Nonviolence</a>

<ul><li><a href="Padayatra" title="Padayatra">Padayatra</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Sermon_on_the_Mount" title="Sermon on the Mount">Sermon on the Mount</a></li>

<li><a href="Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Mahatma Gandhi</a>

<ul><li><a href="Ahimsa" title="Ahimsa">Ahimsa</a></li>

<li><a href="Satyagraha" title="Satyagraha">Satyagraha</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="The_Kingdom_of_God_Is_Within_You" title="The Kingdom of God Is Within You">The Kingdom of God Is Within You</a></li>

<li><a href="Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a></li>

<li><a href="Mary_McLeod_Bethune" title="Mary McLeod Bethune">Mary McLeod Bethune</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">Lyndon B. Johnson</a></li>

<li><a href="Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Lynching in the United States">Lynching in the United States</a></li>

<li><a href="Plessy_v._Ferguson" title="Plessy v. Ferguson">Plessy v. Ferguson</a>

<ul><li><a href="Separate_but_equal" title="Separate but equal">Separate but equal</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Buchanan_v._Warley" title="Buchanan v. Warley">Buchanan v. Warley</a></li>

<li><a href="Hocutt_v._Wilson" title="Hocutt v. Wilson">Hocutt v. Wilson</a></li>

<li><a href="Powell_v._Alabama" title="Powell v. Alabama">Powell v. Alabama</a></li>

<li><a href="Smith_v._Allwright" title="Smith v. Allwright">Smith v. Allwright</a></li>

<li><a href="Hernandez_v._Texas" title="Hernandez v. Texas">Hernandez v. Texas</a></li>

<li><a href="Loving_v._Virginia" title="Loving v. Virginia">Loving v. Virginia</a></li>

<li><a href="African-American_women_in_the_civil_rights_movement" title="African-American women in the civil rights movement">African-American women in the movement</a></li>

<li><a href="Jews_in_the_civil_rights_movement" title="Jews in the civil rights movement">Jews in the civil rights movement</a></li>

<li><a href="Fifth_Circuit_Four" title="Fifth Circuit Four">Fifth Circuit Four</a></li>

<li><a href="16th_Street_Baptist_Church" title="16th Street Baptist Church">16th Street Baptist Church</a></li>

<li><a href="Kelly_Ingram_Park" title="Kelly Ingram Park">Kelly Ingram Park</a></li>

<li><a href="A.G._Gaston_Motel" title="A.G. Gaston Motel">A.G. Gaston Motel</a></li>

<li><a href="Bethel_Baptist_Church_(Birmingham%2C_Alabama)" title="Bethel Baptist Church (Birmingham, Alabama)">Bethel Baptist Church</a></li>

<li><a href="Brown_Chapel_A.M.E._Church_(Selma%2C_Alabama)" title="Brown Chapel A.M.E. Church (Selma, Alabama)">Brown Chapel</a></li>

<li><a href="Dexter_Avenue_Baptist_Church" title="Dexter Avenue Baptist Church">Dexter Avenue Baptist Church</a></li>

<li><a href="Holt_Street_Baptist_Church" title="Holt Street Baptist Church">Holt Street Baptist Church</a></li>

<li><a href="Edmund_Pettus_Bridge" title="Edmund Pettus Bridge">Edmund Pettus Bridge</a></li>

<li><a href="March_on_Washington_Movement" title="March on Washington Movement">March on Washington Movement</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_attacks_against_African-American_churches#20th_Century" title="List of attacks against African-American churches">African-American churches attacked</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_lynching_victims_in_the_United_States" title="List of lynching victims in the United States">List of lynching victims in the United States</a></li>

<li><a href="Freedom_Schools" title="Freedom Schools">Freedom Schools</a></li>

<li><a href="Freedom_song" title="Freedom song">Freedom songs</a></li>

<li><a href="National_Mobilization_Committee_to_End_the_War_in_Vietnam" title="National Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam">Spring Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam</a>

<ul><li>"<a href="Beyond_Vietnam%3A_A_Time_to_Break_Silence" title="Beyond Vietnam: A Time to Break Silence">Beyond Vietnam: A Time to Break Silence</a>"</li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Voter_Education_Project" title="Voter Education Project">Voter Education Project</a></li>

<li><a href="Counterculture_of_the_1960s" title="Counterculture of the 1960s">1960s counterculture</a></li>

<li><a href="African_American_founding_fathers_of_the_United_States" title="African American founding fathers of the United States">African American founding fathers of the United States</a></li>

<li><a href="Eyes_on_the_Prize" title="Eyes on the Prize">Eyes on the Prize</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Legacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Civil_rights_movement_in_popular_culture" title="Civil rights movement in popular culture">In popular culture</a></li>

<li><a href="Birmingham_Civil_Rights_Institute" title="Birmingham Civil Rights Institute">Birmingham Civil Rights Institute</a></li>

<li><a href="Birmingham_Civil_Rights_National_Monument" title="Birmingham Civil Rights National Monument">Birmingham Civil Rights National Monument</a></li>

<li><a href="Civil_Rights_Memorial" title="Civil Rights Memorial">Civil Rights Memorial</a></li>

<li><a href="Civil_Rights_Movement_Archive" title="Civil Rights Movement Archive">Civil Rights Movement Archive</a></li>

<li><a href="Emmett_Till_and_Mamie_Till-Mobley_National_Monument" title="Emmett Till and Mamie Till-Mobley National Monument">Emmett Till and Mamie Till-Mobley National Monument</a></li>

<li><a href="Medgar_and_Myrlie_Evers_Home_National_Monument" title="Medgar and Myrlie Evers Home National Monument">Medgar and Myrlie Evers Home National Monument</a></li>

<li><a href="Freedom_Rides_Museum" title="Freedom Rides Museum">Freedom Rides Museum</a></li>

<li><a href="Freedom_Riders_National_Monument" title="Freedom Riders National Monument">Freedom Riders National Monument</a></li>

<li><a href="King_Center_for_Nonviolent_Social_Change" title="King Center for Nonviolent Social Change">King Center for Nonviolent Social Change</a></li>

<li><a href="Martin_Luther_King_Jr._Day" title="Martin Luther King Jr. Day">Martin Luther King Jr. Day</a></li>

<li><a href="Martin_Luther_King_Jr._Memorial" title="Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial">Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial</a>

<ul><li><a href="Memorials_to_Martin_Luther_King_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Memorials to Martin Luther King Jr.">other King memorials</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Mississippi_Civil_Rights_Museum" title="Mississippi Civil Rights Museum">Mississippi Civil Rights Museum</a></li>

<li><a href="National_Civil_Rights_Museum" title="National Civil Rights Museum">National Civil Rights Museum</a></li>

<li><a href="National_Voting_Rights_Museum" title="National Voting Rights Museum">National Voting Rights Museum</a></li>

<li><a href="St._Augustine_Foot_Soldiers_Monument" title="St. Augustine Foot Soldiers Monument">St. Augustine Foot Soldiers Monument</a></li>

<li><a href="Victory_Salute_(statue)" title="Victory Salute (statue)">Olympic Black Power Statue</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Noted historians</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Taylor_Branch" title="Taylor Branch">Taylor Branch</a></li>

<li><a href="Clayborne_Carson" title="Clayborne Carson">Clayborne Carson</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Dittmer" title="John Dittmer">John Dittmer</a></li>

<li><a href="Michael_Eric_Dyson" title="Michael Eric Dyson">Michael Eric Dyson</a></li>

<li><a href="Chuck_Fager" title="Chuck Fager">Chuck Fager</a></li>

<li><a href="Adam_Fairclough" title="Adam Fairclough">Adam Fairclough</a></li>

<li><a href="David_Garrow" title="David Garrow">David Garrow</a></li>

<li><a href="David_Halberstam" title="David Halberstam">David Halberstam</a></li>

<li><a href="Vincent_Harding" title="Vincent Harding">Vincent Harding</a></li>

<li><a href="Steven_F._Lawson" title="Steven F. Lawson">Steven F. Lawson</a></li>

<li><a href="Doug_McAdam" title="Doug McAdam">Doug McAdam</a></li>

<li><a href="Diane_McWhorter" title="Diane McWhorter">Diane McWhorter</a></li>

<li><a href="Charles_M._Payne" title="Charles M. Payne">Charles M. Payne</a></li>

<li><a href="Thomas_E._Ricks_(journalist)" title="Thomas E. Ricks (journalist)">Thomas E. Ricks</a></li>

<li><a href="Timothy_Tyson" title="Timothy Tyson">Timothy Tyson</a></li>

<li><a href="Akinyele_Umoja" title="Akinyele Umoja">Akinyele Umoja</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_photographers_of_the_civil_rights_movement" title="List of photographers of the civil rights movement">Movement photographers</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#eeeeee;"><div> <a href="Portal%3ACivil_rights_movement" title="Portal:Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement portal</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

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